Wood, one of the world’s oldest building materials, could make a comeback in the next decade if mass timber can overcome a range of challenges as the green transition gains momentum in Canada’s construction industry.
This will not be the lumber of days gone by, chopped and sawed and hammered into homes and buildings in the years before steel, cement and glass radically transformed architecture in the 20th century.
Mass timber – a generic term for materials engineered out of laminated lumber, veneer and wood strands – is attracting a great deal of attention as Canada seeks to build millions of new commercial, residential and institutional buildings without driving up the country’s carbon emissions.
Lighter than concrete or steel but strong enough for use in load-bearing beams and columns, mass timber has environmental and construction virtues that could dramatically change the building landscape, green construction advocates say.
What is mass timber?
More than 5,000 years ago, Mesopotamians glued thin sheets of high-quality wood over a layer of cheaper wood to produce the first “engineered” timber.
Mass timber as it’s known today describes a suite of wood building materials manufactured to be strong, light, resilient and flexible – and potentially shrink the heavy carbon footprint of modern construction.
Here are key facts about mass timber in Canada:
- Forests in both Eastern and Western Canada supply a mix of spruce, pine and fir feedstock for mass timber manufacturing from publicly-owned lands and privately-run forests. Some wood feedstock is also recycled from landfills.
- There are around 20 mass timber manufacturing facilities in five provinces, the bulk of production in British Columbia, Ontario and Quebec. These plants supply 500,000 cubic metres a year and have a production capacity of nearly 1 million cubic metres.
- Mass timber firms generally buy dimensional, standard-sized lumber from mills, but they have specific needs, such as a lower moisture content (15 per cent versus 19 per cent for standard lumber), and wood sawn to various dimensions.
There are two main types of engineered wood used in construction:
- Cross-laminated timber (CLT) has a high strength-to-weight ratio, insulating and sound advantages that make it suitable for walls, roofs and floors. Prefabricated panels are made from kiln-dried lumber laid flat and glued together. Door and window openings are pre-cut at the factory so each panel is ready for quick installation.
- Glue-laminated timber is made from dimension lumber and known for its high strength and stiffness. Glulam is widely used for load-bearing beams, girders, posts and columns. It’s produced at 12 facilities in Canada.
An industrial roadmap from the Transition Accelerator, an Ottawa-based think tank, argues that using mass timber in place of conventional construction materials could cut “embodied carbon” – the emissions produced during manufacturing – by 40 per cent.
Almost 700 mass timber buildings have been built across Canada in the past decade, with another 150 in development today, ranging across the architectural spectrum from condo developments and ice rinks, office towers and a traditional Cree Sabtuan culture house.
A – literally – high-profile example of this new wave of mass timber construction is now rising on a corner of the University of Toronto. The 70-metre- high Academic Wood Tower on St. George campus will be Canada’s tallest academic wood structure when it opens in 2026.
"The low-carbon impact of the project is, of course, central to the argument in favour of [mass timber]," said Scott Mabury, the university’s vice president of operations and real estate partnerships, who spearheaded the AWT project.
"But the other promises of mass timber building – it should go up faster, ultimately be cheaper, be lighter and so on – still need to be proved in Canada to get it to competitive commercial viability internationally – which it isn't yet," he added.
Building site “laboratory”
The tower was originally conceived in concrete and steel when the Goldring Centre was built in the early 2010s. By 2014 the idea of a mass timber tower was being explored.
Designed by Vancouver-based Patkau Architects and Toronto’s MJMA Architecture and Design, with consulting from Blackwell Structural Engineers, the AWT will be home to the Rotman School of Management and the Munk School of Global Affairs & Public Policy, among others.
The project price tag has not been disclosed. Funding has come from university donors as well as the federal government, through the Green Construction through Wood programme that is aligned with Canada’s Paris Agreement climate commitments.
The project has been “something of a laboratory" so far, said Mabury, pointing to the “experience, lessons, which you can't put a price on – big positives for us and the wider industry."
Towering Tutor: Academic Wood Tower
Design features of the Academic Wood Tower
- South façade: has ribbon windows protected by exterior sunshades. The shades prevent overheating in summer but still provide warmth and light in winter.
- North façade: has more glass area to maximize indirect light and views of the city.
- Panelised envelope: comprises wall panels manufactured offsite. The panels are faster and easier to install onsite than normal building methods and protect the timber structure from the weather during construction.
- Glulam: all beams, braces, floor panels, columns are made from various sizes and shapes of glue-laminated mass timber.
- Green roof: the lower Goldring Centre building includes a green roof to reduce urban heating and is designed to accommodate solar panels in the future.
- Embodied carbon: the initial tower design was concrete and steel when the Goldring Centre was built in the early 2010s. The switch to mass timber will help offset embodied carbon in the centre.
- Energy efficient: the tower will be 40 per cent more energy efficient than Ontario code requirements, thanks to its airtight and super-insulated design.
- Fire safety – Mass timber is difficult to burn. When exposed to fire, it forms a thick char layer that protects the timber and retains its structural capacity. This allows wood to be exposed in much of the tower. In concealed areas, the glulam timber is encapsulated with a layer of noncombustible material to guard against fire. The tower also has two independent sprinkler systems. Together, these measures result in a structure that is significantly safer than comparable non-timber buildings.
Most of the AWT is built out of Douglas fir sourced from British Columbia, along with some Alberta spruce for concealed panels. Edmonton-based manufacturer Western Archrib has said its wood products are certified by the Forest Stewardship Council, a non-profit group that sets standards for responsible harvesting and forest management. (See factbox: How sustainable is mass timber?)
Due to the tower’s modular design, the components are manufactured off-site at Western Archrib’s facilities in Alberta and Manitoba, and transported to the university building site ready for assembly. As a result, there are “fewer people on site, fewer trucks coming and going, less noise, less disruption to neighbouring buildings,” Mabury said.
But the university had a higher ambition in building its mass timber flagship.
"We felt it fell to us as a public institution to try to help bridge the gap commercializing mass timber for all markets,” Mabury said. “For interests broader than the institution. Canadian society at large.”
The project also aims to spotlight barriers to the take-up of mass timber, Mabury said, noting the lack of standardized design, performance and manufacturing requirements that today continue to undermine the supply and price competition for materials in the construction market.
“The supply is limited,” he said. “A supplier will deliver for a project, but their full capacity is taken up. So, it can be many months before your project comes up.”
Although classed as "fire safe" by regulators, Mabury noted, a new mass timber building still needs a bespoke insurance policy – at premiums up to ten times higher than a similar steel and concrete project. This can impact the cost and competitiveness of projects and undermine mass timber’s acceptance in mainstream construction.
“Not just a tree-planting nation”
Mass timber has unique qualities for greening the built environment, sustainable construction advocates say, not least as a “carbon-lock” due to the fact that the wood used will have absorbed large volumes of CO2 over its decades-long lifetime in the forest.
But the long-term environmental impact of mass timber has come under scrutiny as its profile has been raised in green building circles, with critics pointing to issues linked to logging practices, changes in land use and climate change.
How sustainable is mass timber?
It depends on several factors, including the source of wood, how it was harvested and the ongoing health of the forest.
A common assumption is that trees regrow, ensuring that wood is a renewable and carbon-neutral resource. But experts say many forests in Canada and the world are struggling due to extensive logging, changes in land use and climate change.
If mass timber involves clearcut logging, particularly from primary or old-growth forests, the carbon and ecological impacts can be significant. Wood from secondary or reforested areas can have lesser but still consequential impacts, experts say.
“Anytime trees are removed there's an impact,” Dominick DellaSala, chief scientist at Wild Heritage, a U.S.-based conservation NGO. “Just because it is mass timber doesn't mean it's not impactful.”
Most of Canada’s mass timber manufacturers acquire wood feedstock that is certified by at least one of two forestry-standards groups, the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) or the Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI). However, these sustainability-certification programmes have come under scrutiny for their roles in the rapid loss of older Canadian forests.
The focus on mass timber’s CO2 sequestering benefits can also overlook factors such as emissions released when wood products are shipped from a manufacturing facility to a construction site, or the integration of other materials such as steel required to meet fire codes for emergency stairwells.
What happens to mass timber modules when a building reaches the end of its life is also often unclear.
The standard life-cycle assessment (LCA) for measuring the carbon footprint of a building typically does not include a detailed analysis of the land and forestry impacts, or whether engineered wood beams and panels are reused or sent to landfills after a building is torn down.
Clear cutting old-growth areas, disturbing soils or converting primary to less productive secondary forests can add up to 72 per cent of a wood product’s total lifecycle emissions, “challenging the prevailing assumption that wood construction materials are lower carbon than other construction materials,” the International Institute of Sustainable Development (IISD) said in a 2019 study.
“Failure to account for all carbon emissions may be undercutting today’s climate change efforts and shortchanging future emission reduction opportunities,” the IISD said in the report.
Nevertheless, mass timber proponents believe there is a clear economic development angle for the sector in this country.
"Canada is not just a tree-planting nation,” said Derek Eaton, the Transition Accelerator's director of future economy and co-author of a sector roadmap produced with a number of industry associations. "We can be a world-leader in mass timber and create a great deal of economic development and the jobs that go with that.”
Canada could take a far larger slice of the expanding global mass timber market than its current $380 million in annual exports, according to calculations in the roadmap that point to an “ambitious vision of increasing the market to $1.2 billion by 2030 and doubling that to $2.4 billion by 2035.” (See factbox: Mass timber “value chain”)
That market growth could boost employment levels in rural and indigenous communities near logging sites, sawmills and mass timber factories. An RBC analysis said the 4,000 current jobs in mass timber manufacturing, technology, forestry, design and engineering could triple by the end of the decade.
Mass timber – particularly in modular designs – could also get a leg-up from new provincial and federal regulations that have raised the height limit for wood buildings to 18 storeys from 12.
British Columbia changed its height limit in April and expanded the use of mass timber in schools, libraries and retail. Ontario has also broadened the use of mass timber to “build more homes faster, keep the cost of construction down and boost our northern economy.”
Timber travails
Despite Canada’s extensive forest resources and supply chain expertise, mass timber faces several barriers to expanding its modest 1 per cent share of the North American building materials market.
"At a time when we are concerned about lagging productivity in the national workforce as well as the need to build a lot of housing – and in fact all types of buildings – faster, mass timber presents itself as a golden opportunity," Eaton said.
But seizing the moment would mean shifting the generally accepted view that wood is primarily an export commodity rather than a natural resource that deserves a national industrial strategy to “harness mass timber’s environmental and economic benefits,” he added.
The mass timber sector needs to break out of a "chicken-and-egg scenario,” said Derek Nighbor, CEO of the Forest Products Association Canada (FPAC), an industry advocacy body.
"Developers and designers are excited by the prospects of working in mass timber, but they need to be sure they can get access to the products they need at the right time and price,” Nighbor said. Manufacturers will only invest in producing mass timber products if they see market certainty in the long-term, he added.
The supply-side pressures are magnified by a shortage of mass timber feedstock, which has different requirements for moisture content and processing than regular lumber products, according to the RBC study.
Transportation poses further cost and carbon complications as 11 manufacturers are based in Western Canada (eight in B.C. alone), while most customers are in the populous provinces of Ontario and Quebec. Mass timber producers looking to scale-up their operations also face hefty costs for equipment and technology that is mainly sourced from Europe.
Lumber mill to mass timber
Canadian mass timber companies are nonetheless investing in new facilities, betting that builders will adopt low-carbon, engineered wood amid pressure to cut construction-related CO2 emissions.
B.C.’s Kalesnikoff and Chibougamau, P.Q.-based Nordic Structures, two leading players in the emerging sector, have in recent years transformed themselves from lumber mills into mass timber manufacturers.
Nordic Structures has delivered mass timber modules for projects across North America, including low-carbon buildings for Ivy League schools and Toronto’s T3 Bayside office tower.
Kalesnikoff, an 85-year-old firm that converted to mass timber in 2019, revealed plans in March to spend $34 million on a third factory in the West Kootenays to meet growing demand for projects such as a power house for the Ah'ta'apq Creek Hydro project in B.C. and the KF Aerospace Centre for Excellence in Kelowna.
“We are developing product lines that can be adapted to most projects. Sales are up and orders are up,” said Kalesnikoff sales director Devin Harding.
“We are not just providing mass timber, we are providing pre-fabricated solutions that allow developers to solve more than just the single problem of carbon,” he said, pointing to benefits for manpower, logistics, faster construction and aesthetics in building with wood modules.
Despite its modest share of the building materials market today, demand for mass timber is accelerating and “starting to really catch the eye of developers and private builders,” Harding said.
“So, the growth rate is only going to continue.”
Mass timber "value chain"
- Create a coordinating group: set up a new public-private body to develop a policy package that includes revised building and fire codes, government procurement plans, and strategic financing to support mass timber.
- Set new standards: develop mass timber specifications and standardized products for key growth markets. Identify affordable and practical mass timber systems for typical buildings. Highlight test cases that lower prefabrication costs.
- Focus on skills training: create a national training programme for skilled mass timber workers. Promote mass timber to architects, engineers, finance and development teams.
- Develop a regional strategy: fashion a plan designed to scale mass timber production in areas with high-demand building projects to cut transportation costs and related carbon emissions.
Implementing these actions would help Canadian firms compete in a North American mass timber market expected to grow at 14-15 per cent a year to 2030, said FPAC CEO Derek Nighbor.
"We have the resource base and world-class forestry practices,” he said. “Capture some big part of this [North American] opportunity and we can begin to catch up on Europe which has a 10-15 year head-start” in mass timber.
A study by FPInnovations, an industry analyst group, calculated that if 40 per cent of 7-12 storey residential buildings built in Canada in 2022 had used mass timber, it would have needed 521,000 cubic metres of wood. As it was, less than 30,000 cubic metres was used for this building type, a market penetration of barely two per cent.
The big question, mass timber advocates say, is how the government and industry can align on a trifecta of potential wins for the environment, economic development and job creation while also accessing export markets.
"The government and industry need to step up to make it all happen,” Nighbor said. “The construction sector is facing an existential challenge, a green transition and cutting our [emissions]. “Mass timber will be key."
Comments
I am concerned about the glue and the off-gassing of many glues.
An industry will always then to self-promote themselves as beings the goddess' gift to ________ (fill in the blank). "Everything is rosy".
I like wood as a building material and glad that they are doing this.
Insurance is a barrier though.
Glue is a very minor component of mass timber. Wood is, by far, the largest component by volume in glue laminated beams, cross laminated slabs, plywood and so forth. How? Because the strength of each piece relies on the grain formed by lignin, and when they are welded together with crossed grains that strength is multiplied.
This does not follow through with lumber made from waste that has lost the wood grain and thus must rely on glue for strength. Oriented strand board (OSB) and particle board are two common examples. These products, though useful and cheap, are inferior in my view.
Offgassing is common with many construction materials, from insulation to plastics. Mass timber is not known to have a big issue with it because not much glue is used because great pressure is applied to the assembled product with a little glue left after squeeze out. Again, the lignin in the grain in the wood does the vast majority of the work.
Low VOC adhesives and paints are out there, which are common in modern energy efficient buildings which also have superb ventilation with heat exchange units in the fresh-stale air ducting as a standard feature.
You'd be better off being worried about air quality when sitting in a brand new car or walking through a cloud of second hand vape smoke on the street.
I appreciate the yellow "facts" boxes, but overall I think this article is too much hype and not enough critical thinking. The forestry industry has a very bad case of "have your cake and eat it too". They want to harvest ever increasing amounts of wood, they want to build with it, they want to pulp it, they want to burn it to replace coal and gas-fired electricity, and they want to convert it to jet fuel, they want the trees to pull CO2 out of the atmosphere, and they want to get paid for carbon credits all along the way. Forests are burning up in wildfires faster than they can currently sequester carbon, all commercial forests in Canada are logged using clearcutting (it is actually illegal to use any other method in much of the forest). Mass timber is likely to increase demand for big trees in old growth forests - a death sentence for the remaining islands of biodiversity. The loss of forests is an incomprehensible natural disaster - a climate change accelerant. Hyping timber for "green" building construction without addressing the full context is irresponsible.
Well-stated, and the blinkered, "aside from that. Mrs. Lincoln, how was the play?" attitude was summarized in the sentence:
"Nevertheless, mass timber proponents believe there is a clear economic development angle for the sector in this country."
where "Nevertheless" = "ignore the man behind the curtain screaming for a whole-systems analysis".
Such is the default, 1-dimensional reportage from Canada's National Observer, sadly; it is ready to accept, at face value and with nary a "yabut" of skepticism, any news release that can be interpreted as "good news".
There is a complementary (as in "don't uncork the champagne just yet") article in The Tyee this week which has the lede:
"As mills close and jobs vanish, we go inside B.C.’s forest industry crisis."
https://thetyee.ca/News/2024/10/03/Inside-BC-Forest-Industry-Crisis/
I'm curious how mass timber will save the BC forest products industry (not to mention the forests).
A lot of unsubstantiated opinion there. Selection logging and selective thinning is "illegal"? Give me a break. Bigger trees go into mass timber? In fact the opposite is true. Mass timber uses smaller cuts and often the formerly unprofitable waste products.
Your comments are full of what you accuse the author of -- uncritical thinking. There is lots to be critical of in Canadian forestry, from clearcutting and soil disturbance to the export of raw logs. But mass timber is a critical response to that as well as the tariffs imposed by the US on Canadian softwood lumber. Without mass timber alternatives you'd be back to imported high carbon ste
...steel from China and solid concrete construction.
Moreover, the standard wood stickframe houses built en masse in our sprawling suburbs have a lifespan carbon footprint far higher than even concrete and steel in the inner city through a century of operations (cars and freeways vs transit and walkable communities. Mass timber is one solution of many.
If we can abstract things a little, let's talk about wood fibre rather than the age of trees, of whatever age (though I imagine the structural strength of various kinds of wood depends to a degree on age).
There is a finite amount of wood fibre available. At present, BC has a problem in that the amount of wood fibre available has not been providing the economic benefits to the province that it once did. And now we're talking about a new source of demand for that wood fibre.
It may be the case that mass timber supply will displace demand for dimensional lumber, in which case one could potentially foresee a near net-zero difference in fibre extraction; as mass timber production goes up, dimensional lumber production goes down. But, I don't see that as likely. Setting aside stick-frame, low-rise residential construction, if a sizeable percentage of steel/concrete, commercial construction is shifted to mass timber, where is that fibre going to come from?
It's fine to point out the potential differences in GHG emissions from different building methods and materials, not to mention building typologies, but if the forests of BC are already in a critical state (including from pelletizing old growth for "renewable" heating or electricity generation), how does upscaling fibre extraction to supply an increased mass timber industry lead to the recovery of the provinces forests (differentiated from tree plantations)?
You also mentioned, Alex, the ever-present duties, and related battles, the Americans slap on BC lumber. Given the state of BC's forests, was there much more that could have been extracted and shipped south had the duties never existed? (honest question)
How does mass timber mitigate forest extraction practices? Do you not believe that clearcuts would continue, regardless of where the trees end up, simply because of the short-term financial benefits of not caring about the health of the land base.
In any event, for all this, I think you'll agree that what is needed is a comprehensive, honest and disinterested lifecycle analysis of the alternatives.
Absolutely agree with Ken Paton, BC's forests are in terrible shape, there is one valley on the Vancouver Island that has old growth in it, but only after hundreds of people were arrested and their belonging like vehicles trashed by the CIRG, a branch of hooligans from the RCMP.
You said it: plantations.
They can be managed in continuous cover forever, with minimal soil disturbance, companion planting and techniques that copy the natural forest growth cycle. They can also be isolated from natural forests and can help protect adjacent riparian forests. Some plantations in Europe use diverse species, are selectively thinned every year and have a continuous canopy cover. Centuries of harvesting shows very little outward change in cover.
A lot of this was described in detail by UBC forest ecologist Dr. Simard in her wonderful 'Mother Tree' book. Her Number One point is to ban clearcutting because the biome below the ground is as important --even more so -- then above, mainly for the vast network of fungal filaments that connect an entire forest together as a single organic nutrient and moisture transportarion system.
The Forest Stewardship Council is a certification body for best practices in forest management. It's not perfect and can be influenced by industry and politics, but it is a good certification model that can be built on by architects, structural engineers and builders to up the effort on sustainability.
Using mass timber from certified sustainable source plantations doesn't automatically lead to cutting down more forests. That is an easy assumption to make given BC's widescale historic abuse regarding its forests. It certanly does relate to value added uses that utilize waste and second grade lumber. Most importantly, it offers an alternative to pelletization, old growth logging, raw log exports and terrible forest practices involving extinction clearcut logging.
I took a UBC forest ecology course back in the 80s where Dr. Hamish Kimmins was full of great ideas. One of his best was to "seed with alder." Alus rubra is a very tough, prolific pioneer tree species that can grow on deeply disturbed soil. Scatter alder seed by plane over vast damaged clearcut areas, leave it alone for 40 years and you've got a continuous canopy and deep humus soil brimming with nitrogen. One mature alder can fix nearly 100 kg of N into the ground every year. A site with a 100 year old alder forest will have built up 30 cm of soil and will just be entering the coniferous stage of forest succession, likely becoming a Douglas fir climax forest in 300 years in the drier Vancouver region.
I thought Kimmins' ideas were brilliant and in my years of urban design I always remembered his statements when encountering the phenomenal power of alder in forested environments. The course was too tough for a non forestry student and I failed it, only to have an extremely enjoyable time with the Biology Dept's general ecology course which involved 10 field trips in forests, on beaches and in bogs in just six weeks in summer.
The myth of "carbon-neutral wood" is not fully explored here. Industrially-logged plantation forestry impacts both sides of the carbon equation: it reduces the functioning forest sinks and greatly increases emissions. Plantations never catch up in terms of storage of carbon so carbon-neutrality is a false claim. The loss of carbon stored when logging and converting primary forests to plantations in the various carbon pools (forest floor, soil, roots, live trees, standing and lying dead trees) is well over 50% which is never recovered, even at the end of a rotation cycle—not even close. With every rotation the carbon stored declines. The claim that "carbon being stored in harvested wood products" is also a myth. Provincial data itself points to less than 8% of the logged wood ending up in a long-lasting wood product. Most of it goes early on in slash fires and short-term wood products. The industry meme that "young trees are climate heroes" is a distortion and confuses flux rates with storage. Annual flux rates on young plantations might be slightly higher (a few tons per hectare more than an old growth) for a very short period after fertilization applications, but as these plantations move into the black holes at 40 years old, flux levels flatten out and they grow less fast and are less fire-resilient than primary forests. The focus on a tiny shift of flux rate is deflecting the real issue which is the loss of stored carbon with the conversion of a natural primary forest to a plantation in the first place. "Green buildings" are not "trail blazers" or "climate solutions", they aren't even in fact "green". We need to reveal all of these distortions of forest carbon data.
Okay. Back to concrete block and brick then.
There already has been a falldown in forestry in BC. One theory is to let natural forests recover by permanetly removing them from industrial logging. Using lesser quality plantation trees and waste domestically would take some pressure off that recovery.
All natural resources combined, including agruculture and fisheries, occupies a portion of the province's economy below 20%. We can afford now to seriously shift priorities to recover from the damage and fight climate change.
Meanwhile, folks still need buildings to live and work in.
From a cold, hard, neutral economic point of view, and to illustrate further the fact that forestry is not a big part of the provincial wealth anymore, we end up with just a 5.8% share of BC's 2023 GDP even with forestry, agriculture, mining, quarrying, fishing and oil & gas combined. Yet we have a huge amount of political rhetoric revolving around forestry thanks to industry and related labour union influence on government.
https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/data/statistics/economy/economic-othe…
The real issue at hand is, how do we reform the industry to reflect its true place at the lower rungs of the economy? We can easily afford to undertake deep reforms and virtually ban all wood exports, all logging except that which retains continuous cover, accounts for soil and wood fibre carbon, minimizes and recycles waste, and places value added priority on its domestic use, especially that which is protected indoors for 100 years or more.
Banning all logging and the use of wood domestically is just not on. But reforming the system is something we need to tackle, especially in light of a climate that's changing more rapidly than even scientists anticipated.
This is similar to Canada's fossil fuel industry that, even under its most ideal conditions, occupies a single digit percentile of the nation's economy. We can if we tried take deep reprioritizing efforts in both and strive to decarbonize society.
A small tangent. Metro Vancouver and region, by dint of its mere existence, contains half the province's population and generates half of the province's wealth. Next week we could see the Conservatives take control of the BC government and rule from the hinterlands and suburbs. They will elevate resource extraction while battering public institutions. They will drain ministry coffers to build highways and subsidize the fossil fuel industry and log the last old growth tree while ignoring the big city. At least these are the well worn patterns they've used before. During Christy Clark's single term as premier, there was lots of online grumbling about making Metro Vancouver into a self-governed city-state because Clark was dissing it so badly. The fact is the provincial economy would collapse without its most important urban golden goose. BC will survive well if forestry disappeared overnight, but there will be distributed hardship in some communities. Why should the hinterlands rule over the city?